BY 


A.  P.  BRYANT, 

\ Of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

V 

■ — - 

' 

Reprint  from  Yearbook  of  Department  of  agriculture  for  1898. 


19630 1 


*> 


I 

f 


CONTENTS. 


Pagf* 

Introduction 439 

Method  of  making  dietary  studies 440 

Number  of  dietary  studies  made 442 

Similarity  of  food  consumption  among  people  living  under  similar  condi- 
tions   442 

Differences  in  food  consumption  among  people  of  different  occupations 443 

Effect  of  change  of  location  on  the  dietary 443 

Dietary  studies  in  farmers’  families 444 

Dietary  studies  among  Mexicans  and  negroes 445 

Animal  and  vegetable  foods  in  dietaries 446 

Some  effects  of  different  combinations  of  food  on  dietary 447 

Desirability  of  considering  nutritive  value  in  the  purchase  of  food 448 

Importance  of  avoiding  waste  of  food 449 

Summary  of  American  dietary  studies 450 

Ways  in  which  the  results  of  dietary  studies  may  be  used 451 

ii 


SOME  RESULTS  OF  DIETARY  STUDIES  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 


By  A.  P.  Bryant, 

Of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  results  of  numerous  experiments  in  the  feeding  of  domestic 
animals  made  at  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  and  elsewhere 
have  been  widely  disseminated  among  the  farmers.  They  are  not  so 
familiar  with  the  fact  that  similar  investigations  on  the  food  and 
nutrition  of  man  have  been  made  in  this  country  and  abroad.  The 
problems  relating  to  the  nutrition  of  man  are  in  some  respects  more 
complex  and  difficult  of  solution  than  those  relating  to  the  feeding  of 
animals.  The  general  principles  on  which  the  investigations  are 
based  are,  however,  the  same  in  both  cases,  and  it  has  been  found 
that  advance  in  the  methods  of  investigation  of  the  food  of  man  or 
in  the  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  human  nutrition  has  been  of 
great  advantage  in  the  studies  on  the  feeding  of  animals,  and  vice 
versa.  For  example,  the  results  of  studies  of  the  chemical  composi- 
tion of  cereals  can  be  utilized  in  investigations  on  the  nutrition  of 
both  men  and  animals.  Recently  an  improved  form  of  apparatus 
called  a respiration  calorimeter  has  been  devised  in  connection  with 
studies  on  the  nutrition  of  man,  in  which  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture is  engaged.  With  the  aid  of  this  apparatus  the  knowledge  of 
the  effects  of  food  on  the  nourishment  of  the  human  body  and  in  the 
production  of  the  energy  necessary  to  the  performance  of  different 
"amounts  and  kinds  of  work  is  being  advanced.  But  it  is  believed 
that  a similar  apparatus  will  be  equally  useful  in  the  study  of  the 
same  problems  as  related  to  the  feeding  of  different  kinds  of  domestic 
■animals,  and  therefore  the  Department  has  taken  steps  in  cooperation 
with  one  of  the  experiment  stations  to  have  this  improved  respiration 
calorimeter  adapted  to  use  in  experiments  with  animals.  It  will  then 
be  seen  that  studies  on  the  nutrition  of  man  are  important  not  only  as 
aiding  in  the  improvement  of  the  food  habits  of  the  people,  but  also 
as  contributing  to  better  methods  for  the  feeding  of  farm  animals. 

In  1886  the  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor,  under  the 
direction  of  its  chief,  Hon.  C.  D.  Wright,  began  an  investigation  into 
the  actual  food  consumption  of  factory  operatives,  mechanics,  and 
other  people  with  moderate  incomes.  The  statistics  from  this  inves- 
tigation were  sent  to  Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater,  at  Wesleyan  University, 

439 


440  YEARBOOK  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


under  whose  direction  and  supervision  the  results  were  put  in  form 
for  comparison  with  the  results  of  similar  studies  elsewhere.  At  the 
same  time  similar  work  was  being  done  by  Professor  Atwater  in  the 
vicinity  of  Middletown,  Conn.,  with  the  assistance  of  students  in 
the  university.  With  the  cooperation  of  Mr.  Wright  as  chief  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor  and  later  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor  with  Professor  Atwater  as  director  of 
the  Storrs  (Conn.)  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  the  enterprise 
became  well  established,  so  that  in  1894,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture,  Congress  made  an  appropriation  to  be  applied 
to  the  study  of  the  food  and  nutrition  of  man,  which  has  since  been 
continued.  The  supervision  of  this  work  was  assigned  to  the  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations,  and  Professor  Atwater  was  made  the  special 
agent  in  charge.  In  carrying  out  its  plans  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  had  the  cooperation  not  only  of  Wesleyan  University  and 
the  Storrs  station,  but  also  of  a large  number  of  colleges,  experi- 
ment stations,  and  social  settlements  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
In  this  way  a considerable  amount  of  accurate  data  regarding  the 
nutritive  value  and  relative  cost  of  the  diet  used  by  people  of  differ- 
ent occupations  in  this  country  has  been  obtained. 

METHOD  OF  MAKING  DIETARY  STUDIES. 

The  part  of  these  investigations  which  has  to  do  more  particularly 
with  the  actual  food  consumption  of  people  may  be  described  as  a 
study  of  dietaries.  The  method  employed  in  these  experiments  is,  in 
brief,  as  follows:  A certain  family  is  found  who  is  willing  to  allow 
such  a study  to  be  carried  on.  J ust  before  the  beginning  of  the  study  an 
inventory  of  the  amounts  and  kinds  of  food  materials  on  hand  is  made. 
Everything  edible  is  weighed,  and,  in  many  instances,  the  beverages, 
condiments,  etc. , such  as  coffee,  tea,  spices,  salt,  and  vinegar,  are  also 
weighed.  During  the  study  all  food  materials,  as  they  are  purchased,  are 
weighed  and  their  weight  added  to  the  amount  of  the  same  materials  on 
hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  study.  The  cost  of  the  food  is  also  taken  * 
into  account.  The  study  continues  for  a certain  period  (a  week,  ten 
days,  or  even  a month)  and  at  the  end  another  inventory  is  taken  of 
the  weights  of  all  food  materials  on  hand.  The  weight  of  any  material  t 
on  hand  at  the  beginning  added  to  that  purchased  during  the  study, 
less  the  amount  in  the  house  at  the  close,  gives  the  weight  of  that  mate- 
rial actually  used  as  food  during  the  dietary  study.  Not  all  the  nutri- 
ents in  the  food  purchased  are  necessarily  consumed.  There  is  a 
certain  amount  of  table  and  kitchen  waste  which,  in  accurate  studies, 
must  be  recorded  and  the  amount  of  nutrients  therein  determined 
and  deducted  from  those  in  the  food  purchased. 

A careful  record  is  kept  of  the  attendance  of  the  different  members 
of  the  family  at  each  meal  and  of  any  visitors  who  may  be  present. 
In  this  way  a record  is  obtained  of  the  age,  sex,  and  occupation  of 


SOME  RESULTS  OF  DIETARY  STUDIES. 


441 


the  different  members  of  the  family,  the  number  of  meals  taken  by 
each,  and  the  total  nutrients  consumed  by  the  family.  Of  course,  the 
different  members  of  the  family  will  not  eat  the  same  amount  of  food. 
Not  only  will  the  individuals  of  the  same  age  and  sex  vary,  but  women 
will,  as  a rule,  eat  less  than  men,  and  young  children  less  than  women. 
Using  the  best  available  data,  certain  factors  have  been  deduced 
which  represent  more  or  less  accurately  the  proportional  amount  of 
food  different  persons  will,  on  the  average,  consume  as  compared  with 
an  adult  man  at  ordinary  manual  labor.  Thus,  it  is  estimated  that  a 
man  with  severe  manual  labor  will  need  about  1.2  times  as  much  as 
the  average  man  at  ordinary  labor,  such  as  is  performed  by  the  car- 
penter, machinist,  mill  workman,  etc.  A moderately  active  woman 
will  eat  about  0. 8 as  much  as  her  husband  who  is  at  work  at  some  active 
employment.  A man  sitting  at  a desk  all  day,  a bookkeeper,  for 
example,  also  requires  only  about  0.8  as  much  as  the  carpenter  or 
plumber  who  is  at  moderately  active  manual  labor.  Children  at 
different  ages  require  from  0.3  to  0.8  as  much  as  the  average  man. 

By  use  of  these  factors  the  total  number  of  meals  eaten  by  the  dif- 
ferent persons  is  calculated  to  the  equivalent  number  of  meals  for 
one  man.  Dividing  this  latter  quantity  by  the  number  of  meals 
per  day,  usually  three,  the  equivalent  number  of  days  for  one  man  is 
obtained. 

From  actual  analyses  of  samples  of  the  different  food  materials 
used  or  from  the  average  composition  of  these  food  materials  the 
actual  nutrients  in  the  food  eaten  are  computed,  and  the  results 
divided  by  the  equivalent  number  of  days  for  one  man  give  the 
nutrients  per  man  per  day. 

The  object  of  such  studies  as  those  just  described  is  to  determine 
the  kinds,  amounts,  and  relative  cost  of  food  materials  and  of  nutri- 
ents consumed  by  different  classes  of  people  under  different  condi- 
tions of  age,  sex,  health,  occupation,  and  environment.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  a distinction  is  made  between  food  materials  and  nutri- 
, ents.  The  term  “food  materials”  is  used  to  designate  the  different 
articles  of  food  as  they  are  purchased.  The  term  “nutrients  ” refers 
to  the  particular  ingredients  in  the  food  materials  which  serve  to 
v nourish  the  body.  These  ingredients  are  chiefly  protein,  fats,  and 
carbohydrates.  Protein  (nitrogenous  material)  is  required  to  build 
and  repair  the  tissues  of  the  body,  to  make  blood,  muscle,  bone,  and 
brain,  and  incidentally  to  furnish  energy.  Familiar  examples  of  pro- 
tein are  found  in  lean  meat,  white  of  egg,  casein  (curd)  of  milk,  and 
gluten  of  wheat.  Fats  and  carbolij'drates  are  to  the  body  what  coal 
is  to  the  engine.  They  are  consumed  in  the  body  to  yield  heat,  to 
keep  the  body  warm,  and  to  furnish  the  power  required  for  the  inter- 
nal and  external  work  of  the  body.  Familiar  examples  of  fats  are  fat 
of  meat,  butter,  and  olive  oil.  Familiar  examples  of  carbohydrates 
are  starch  of  flour  and  potatoes,  sugar,  and  cellulose  or  woody  fiber. 


442  YEARBOOK  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


The’  most  convenient  way  of  measuring  energy  is  in  terms  of  heat. 
The  amount  of  energy  furnished  by  a pound  of  a given  food  material, 
or  in  the  total  food  consumed  by  a family,  is  conveniently  measured 
in  calories,  just  as  the  weight  of  the  protein  consumed  is  measured 
in  grams  or  pounds.  A calorie  is,  in  round  numbers,  the  amount  of 
heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1 pound  of  water  4°  F. 

NUMBER  OF  DIETARY  STUDIES  MADE. 

The  total  number  of  dietary  studies  made  in  this  country  and  else- 
where is  large,  numbering  many  hundred.  Of  these,  over  200  have  been 
made  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  in  cooperation  with  colleges, 
experiment  stations,  etc.,  as  previously  mentioned.  Many  of  these 
studies  have  been  conducted  with  the  utmost  care  and  thoroughness. 
They  are,  however,  still  too  limited  in  number  and  variety  to  furnish 
all  the  information  needed  about  the  habits  of  the  people  of  different 
occupations  and  incomes  in  different  parts  of  the  country  regarding 
the  purchase  and  use  of  food.  Nevertheless  the  work  is  sufficient 
to  warrant  some  general  conclusions,  and  it  will  doubtless  be  pos- 
sible to  formulate  scientific  laws  of  nutrition  as  the  data  accumulate 
from  these  and  other  investigations  on  the  food  and  nutrition  of  man. 

SIMILARITY  OF  FOOD  CONSUMPTION  AMONG  PEOPLE  LIVING  UNDER 

SIMILAR  CONDITIONS. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  some  of  the  results  thus  far  obtained 
through  the  studies  of  dietaries  are  briefly  noted.  It  is  interesting 
to  learn  that  families  in  about  the  same  financial  condition  and  per- 
forming equivalent  amounts  of  work  do  not,  on  the  average,  differ 
materially  in  their  food  consumption.  Of  course,  individual  families 
may  differ  to  a considerable  extent  from  the  average,  and  if  we  had 
the  individual  dietaries  of  the  members  of  the  family  we  would  doubt- 
less find  there  were  still  greater  fluctuations.  For  example,  in  nine 
dietary  studies  made  among  families  of  carpenters,  machinists,  etc., 
in  Connecticut,  the  protein  in  the  food  actually  consumed  varied  from 
99  to  119  grams,  averaging  106  grams,  and  the  energy  or  fuel  value  * 
from  2,965  to  3,670  calories,  averaging  3,420  calories.  In  three  stud- 
ies among  mechanics  in  Tennessee  the  protein  varied  from  95  to  110 
grams,  averaging  101  grams,  and  the  energy  from  2,820  to  4,090  calo-* 
ries,  averaging  3,660  calories.  The  food  actually  consumed  by  a tin- 
smith in  Indiana  contained  90  grams  of  protein  and  3,285  calories  of 
energy,  and  that  of  a skilled  mill  workman  in  New  Jersey  100  grams 
of  protein  and  3,435  calories  of  energy.  The  average  of  all  the 
mechanics’  families  studied,  14  in  number,  showed  103  grams  of  pro- 
tein and  3,465  calories  of  energy  in  the  food  per  man  per  day.  It  is 
probable  that  if  sufficient  data  of  the  food  consumption  of  individu- 
als were  available,  it  would  be  found  that  persons  of  the  same  age 
and  sex  and  performing  about  the  same  amount  of  manual  labor 


SOME  RESULTS  OF  DIETARY  STUDIES. 


443 


would,  on  the  average,  consume  food  containing  approximately  the 
same  amount  of  protein  and  energy.  A notable  exception  to  this 
statement  is  found  among  the  negroes  of  the  South,  as  shown  by  the 
studies  made  at  Tuskegee,  Ala.  The  negroes  consume  large  quan- 
tities of  bacon  and  corn  meal,  both  deficient  in  protein,  so  that  their 
daily  diet  is  deficient  in  tissue-building  material  while  furnishing 
about  the  same  amount  of  energy  as  the  average  workingman  else- 
where has  in  his  food.  A similar  deficiency  may  exist  in  the  dietary 
of  many  white  people  of  limited  means  in  the  South,  especially  in  the 
mountain  regions,  where  their  diet  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  negro. 

DIFFERENCES  IN  FOOD  CONSUMPTION  AMONG  PEOPLE  OF  DIFFERENT 

OCCUPATIONS. 

It  has  been  shown  that  people  at  hard  work  consume  considerably 
more  food  than  people  engaged  in  sedentary  occupations.  As  illus- 
trations of  this  fact,  several  dietary  studies  may  be  cited.  The  first 
was  of  a builder’s  family  in  New  York  City.  The  husband  was  a very 
large  and  strong  man,  who,  it  was  said,  could  perform  the  work  of 
about  two  ordinary  men.  His  wife  was  also  large  and  active.  The 
average  food  consumed  per  man  per  day  by  this  family  contained  195 
grams  of  protein  and  5,955  calories  of  energy.  In  the  family  of  a 
blacksmith  residing  in  Middletown,  Conn.,  the  food  consumption  per 
man  per  day  amounted  to  100  grams  of  protein  and  3,640  calories  of 
energy,  and  that  in  a carpenter’s  family  in  the  same  place  to  101 
grams  of  protein  and  3,365  calories  of  energy.  The  family  of  a 
teacher  in  Lafayette,  Ind. , having  a comparatively  small  amount  of 
muscular  exercise,  consumed  food  furnishing  106  grams  of  protein 
and  2,780  calories  of  energy  per  man  per  day.  These  examples  illus- 
trate the  difference  in  food  consumption  by  people  with  different 
amounts  of  labor. 

EFFECT  OF  CHANGE  OF  LOCATION  ON  THE  DIETARY. 

As  a result  of  dietary  studies  carried  on  among  families  of  foreign 
birth  or  parentage  in  Chicago,  it  was  found  that  they  continued  to  a 
considerable  extent  the  dietary  habits  learned  in  their  native  coun- 
tries. All  the  different  nationalities  quite  generally  patronized 
* markets  kept  by  their  own  countrymen  and  purchased  the  kind  of 
food  materials  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed.  The  Italian 
families  cling  to  the  use  of  macaroni  and  oils,  wines,  and  cheese, 
because  they  were  accustomed  to  them  in  Italy.  They  use  little 
milk,  and  have  little  idea  of  the  value  of  American  vegetables. 
Macaroni,  which  forms  one  of  their  chief  articles  of  food,  is  now  made 
in  this  country  and  forms  a nutritious  and  fairly  inexpensive  article 
of  diet.  The  oil,  wine,  and  cheese  are  largely  imported,  and  lienee 
much  more  expensive  here  than  in  Italy.  They  seem  to  be  actually 
in  dread  of  American  foods,  instead’  of  taking  pains  to  adapt  their 


444  YEARBOOK  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


tastes  to  foods  which  are  easily  and  cheaply  secured.  Among  the 
families  of  Russian  Jews  it  was  noticed  that  the  orthodox  class  held 
firmly  to  the  ecclesiastical  laws  governing  the  mode  of  slaughter  of 
animals  for  food,  and  that  even  among  the  unorthodox  few  had  over- 
come their  antipathy  to  pork,  and  this  article  of  diet  appears  to  be 
very  little  used  among  them.  It  was  found,  however,  that  extended 
residence  in  this  country  gradually  produced  changes  in  the  food  con- 
sumption, so  that  the  families  born  in  this  country  of  foreign  parents 
did  not  seem  to  differ  materially  in  their  food  purchases  from  other 
native  Americans  in  the  same  region. 

DIETARY  STUDIES  IN  FARMERS’  FAMILIES. 

A dietary  study  was  made  of  a farmer’s  family  in  Vermont.  It  was 
in  winter,  and  the  family  lived  at  such  distance  from  available  mar- 
kets that  it  was  not  always  convenient  to  obtain  fresh  meats;  conse- 
quently the  amount  of  such  food  used  was  small  as  compared  with  that 
found  in  the  ordinary  dietary.  The  vegetable  foods  were  largely 
those  produced  on  the  farm.  Large  amounts  of  flour,  corn  meal, 
potatoes,  beans,  and  onions  were  used,  together  with  crackers,  sugar, 
and  molasses.  The  total  protein  in  the  food  amounted  to  only  69 
grams  and  the  energy  to  2,960  calories  per  man  per  day.  A dietary 
study  of  this  same  family  in  the  summer,  when  all  were  engaged  in 
rather  active  exercise  and  the  markets  were  perhaps  more  accessible, 
showed  not  only  an  increased  food  consumption  but  a larger  propor- 
tion of  meats.  The  food  consumed  per  man  per  day  then  furnished 
89  grams  of  protein  and  3,300  calories  of  energy.  In  general,  it  may 
be  said  that,  as  compared  with  corresponding  studies  of  people  with 
a moderate  amount  of  work  living  in  towns  and  cities,  the  diet  fur- 
nished an  excess  of  fuel  ingredients  (carbohydrates  and  fat)  in  pro- 
portion to  tissue-building  material  (protein).  The  average  of  ten 
dietary  studies  among  farmers’  families,  chiefly  in  Connecticut,  shows 
that  the  daily  food  furnished  97  grams  of  protein  and  3,915  calories 
of  energy  per  man ; rather  less  protein  and  more  energy  than  have  * 
been  found  in  the  average  food  consumption  of  the  carpenter,  machin- 
ist, and  blacksmith.  This  same  difference  is  found  in  the  diet  of  the 
farmer  as  compared  with  professional  men.  The  teacher  living  in  a / 
large  town  or  city  consumes  on  the  whole  rather  more  meat  and  less 
flour  and  vegetables  than  his  friend  on  the  farm.  This  difference  in 
food  habits  is  largely  due  to  difference  in  the  opportunities  for  the 
purchase  of  food.  People  living  in  towns  have  a much  wider  range 
of  choice  than  those  in  the  country,  especial^  as  regards  meats.  On 
the  other  hand,  owing  to  the  abundance  of  vegetables,  grains,  and 
other  farm  products,  and  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  fresh  meats  in 
convenient  quantities,  the  farmer’s  diet  is  apt  to  be  deficient  in  nitrog- 
enous foods  as  compared  with  the  food  consumption  of  other  classes 
of  people.  Whether  this  is  a disadvantage  physiologically,  is  a 


SOME  RESULTS  OF  DIETARY  STUDIES. 


445 


question  that  can  not  be  definitely  answered  at  the  present  time.  It 
would  seem  that  a larger  proportion  of  protein  would  be  desirable. 
This  deficiency  could  be  readily  made  up  by  consuming  more  eggs, 
milk,  and  cheese. 

DIETARY  STUDIES  AMONG  MEXICANS  AND  NEGROES. 

Another  illustration  of  the  fact  that  the  most  available  food  supply 
usually  determines  the  dietary  habits  is  afforded  by  dietary  studies 
made  in  New  Mexico  and  in  the  Black  Belt  of  Alabama.  It  was 
found  that  Mexicans  living  on  the  ranges  of  New  Mexico  consumed 
very  little  meat,  and  that  the  food  consisted  almost  entirely  of  flour, 
corn,  chili  pepper,  and  legumes  raised  at  home.  The  average  food 
consumption  of  four  families  residing  in  this  region  showed  94  grams 
of  protein  and  3,550  calories  of  energy,  results  agreeing  very  closely 
with  those  obtained  in  studies  of  the  Eastern  farmer,  although  the 
cost  of  the  food  in  the  case  of  the  Mexicans  was  much  smaller, 
amounting  to  but  7 cents  per  man  per  day.  The  negro  in  the  South 
is  accustomed  to  living  upon  a very  simple  and  inexpensive  diet,  con- 
sisting of  food  materials  which  will  keep  almost  indefinitely  in  a warm 
climate  without  deteriorating.  The  diet  is  largely  made  up  of  bacon 
and  corn  meal,  and  the  amount  of  protein  furnished  is  very  small  com- 
pared with  the  energy.  In  this  case  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
diet  is  one-sided. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  negro  families  who  had  come  more 
or  less  under  the  influence  of  such  educational  institutions  as  those 
at  Tuskegee,  Ala.,  and  Hampton,  Va.,  the  diet  became  more  or  less 
modified.  To  illustrate,  a family  which  may  be  regarded  as  typical, 
living  on  a plantation  in  Alabama  and  coming  in  no  way  under  edu- 
cational influences,  had  a diet  consisting  of  fresh  pork,  bacon,  butter- 
milk, corn  meal,  and  sugar.  This  diet  furnished  52  grams  of  protein 
and  3,235  calories  of  energy  per  man  per  day.  Not  very  far  away 
there  lived  another  family,  two  of  the  members  of  which  had  come 
* under  the  influence  of  the  Tuskegee  Institute.  The  diet  here  con- 
sisted of  bacon,  eggs,  milk,  butter,  wheat  flour,  corn  meal,  sugar,  and 
molasses.  The  food  per  man  per  day  furnished  92  grams  of  protein 
vand  3,270  calories  of  energy,  or  nearly  twice  as  much  protein  and  the 
same  energy  as  was  obtained  by  the  preceding  family.  In  the  out- 
skirts of  Tuskegee  lived  a colored  carpenter  who  had  learned  his 
trade  at  the  institute  and  was  quite  skillful.  His  diet  contained  beef 
round,  mutton  leg,  bacon,  lard,  chicken,  eggs,  butter,  milk,  wheat 
flour,  corn  meal,  rolled  oats,  sugar,  molasses,  evaporated  apples, 
and  strawberries,  a diet  as  varied  as  is  found  in  many  families  in 
comfortable  circumstances  in  other  regions.  The  food  furnished  97 
grams  of  protein  and  4,060  calories  of  energy  per  man  per  day.  These 
results  show  more  energj"  than  is  usually  found  in  the  food  consumed 
by  persons  at  moderate  labor.  The  protein  compares  quite  closely 


446  YEARBOOK  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


with  that  found  in  the  diet  of  the  average  mechanics’  families.  The 
larger  amount  of  energy  is  due  perhaps  to  the  fact  that  more  muscular 
work  was  performed. 

ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  FOODS  IN  DIETARIES. 

Different  food  materials  differ  widely  in  the  kinds,  proportions,  and 
amounts  of  nutrient  ingredients  they  contain.  It  is  customary  to 
group  these  materials  into  two  general  classes,  animal  and  vegetable 
foods.  The  animal  foods,  such  as  beef,  veal,  mutton,  pork,  fish,  poul- 
try, eggs,  cheese,  etc.,  contain,  as  a rule,  little  or  no  carbohydrates. 
Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  chiefly  found  in  milk  and  products  manu- 
factured from  milk.  With  the  exception  of  butter,  lard,  and  all  but 
the  leaner  cuts  of  pork,  animal  foods  are  essentially  a source  of  pro- 
tein rather  than  energy.  In  such  materials  as  veal,  young  chickens, 
and  fish  there  is  almost  no  fat,  protein  being  practically  the  only 
nutritive  ingredient.  The  presence  of  animal  food  in  the  diet  is  due 
not  only  to  custom  and  desire  for  variety,  but  also  to  the  fact  that 
with  most  people  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of  protein 
or  tissue-forming  material.  At  the  same  time  animal  foods  are  more 
expensive  than  a large  number  of  the  vegetable  food  materials. 
Among  vegetable  foods  we  usually  distinguish  between  cereals  and 
their  manufactured  products,  sugars,  starches  and  the  like,  vegeta- 
bles, and  fruits.  Of  these  subclasses  the  cereals  are  most  important. 
The  cereal  foods  (corn,  wheat,  barley,  buckwheat,  etc. ) and  their 
manufactured  products  (flours,  bread,  crackers,  etc.)  not  only  fur- 
nish a very  large  proportion  of  the  actual  nutrients  in  the  ordinary 
diet,  but  furnish  these  nutrients  most  economically.  Ten  cents 
expended  for  wheat  flour  or  corn  meal  will  purchase  a much  larger 
amount  of  nutriment  than  if  expended  for  any  other  food  material, 
unless  it  be  dried  beans  and  peas. 

With  the  exception  of  a few  of  the  more  common  vegetables,  such 
as  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  and  onions,  the  green  vegetables  and 
fruits,  such  as  cabbage,  lettuce,  squash,  string  beans,  tomatoes, 
apples,  oranges,  bananas,  strawberries,  etc.,  contain  a comparatively 
small  proportion  of  actual  nutrients.  Their  value  in  many  cases  lies  . 
not  so  much  in  the  actual  amount  of  nutrients  they  contain  as  in 
the  variety  and  palatableness  they  give  the  diet,  and  in  the  organic** 
acids  and  the  mineral  matters  they  contain.  When  used  in  con- 
siderable amounts  they  largely  increase  the  cost  of  the  food  while 
adding  comparatively  little  to  the  actual  nutritive  value  of  the  diet. 
As  an  illustration  of  this  latter  statement,  the  case  of  a skilled  mill 
workman  in  New  Jersey  may  be  cited.  The  number  of  meals  taken 
by  the  different  members  of  this  family  during  the  study  was  equiv- 
alent to  one  man  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  days,  or  practically  ' 
four  months.  During  this  time  $2.16  was  expended  for  oranges  and 
$3  for  celery,  making  a total  of  $5.16  for  these  two  articles,  which 


SOME  RESULTS  OF  DIETARY  STUDIES. 


447 


between  them  furnished  150  grams  of  protein  and  6,445  calories  of 
energy.  During  the  same  time  $5.16  was  also  expended  for  cereal 
foods  and  sugars,  and  3,375  grams  of  protein  and  184,185  calories  of 
energy  were  obtained,  or  about  twenty-five  times  the  amount  fur- 
nished by  the  oranges  and  celery.  The  amount  expended  for  vege- 
tables and  fruits  aside  from  the  oranges  and  celery  amounted  to 
$5.75  and  furnished  1,909  grams  of  protein  and  58,000  calories  of 
energy,  or,  in  round  numbers,  ten  times  as  much  as  was  obtained  in 
the  oranges  and  celery. 

SOME  EFFECTS  OF  DIFFERENT  COMBINATIONS  OF  FOOD  ON  DIETARY. 

Results  of  dietary  studies  showT  a great  difference  in  the  kinds  of 
cereal  foods,  meats,  vegetables,  and  fruits  purchased  by  different 
families,  so  that  one  family  may  obtain  more  nutrients  for  the  same 
money  or  the  same  amount  of  nutrients  for  less  money  as  compared 
with  some  neighbor.  Dietary  studies  were  carried  on  in  the  families 
of  a teacher  and  of  a tinner  living  in  Lafayette,  Ind. , during  the  spring 
of  1895.  An  examination  of- the  details  of  the  two  studies  shows  that 
the  teacher  obtained  per  man  per  day  75  grams  of  protein  and  1,425 
calories  of  energy  at  a cost  of  12  cents;  the  tinner,  62  grams  of  protein 
and  1,640  calories  of  energy  at  a cost  of  13  cents.  In  other  words,  the 
actual  nutritive  value  of  the  diet  was  not  notably  different  in  either 
case.  The  proportion  of  beef,  veal,  eggs,  etc.,  in  the  two  diets  was, 
however,  quite  different.  The  teacher’s  family  used  large  amounts  of 
beef,  round  and  shoulder,  and  some  loin  steak,  which  was  purchased 
at  a low  price.  The  tinner’s  family  used  rather  less  beef,  but  the 
cuts  that  were  used  were,  on  the  whole,  more  expensive.  The  {eacher’s 
family  used  more  veal,  which  was  relatively  costly;  less  eggs,  more 
than  twice  as  much  milk,  and  less  butter  than  the  tinner’s  family. 
On  the  whole,  the  former  got  a little  more  protein  and  a little  less 
energy  than  the  latter  in  the  animal  foods  purchased. 

However,  the  great  difference  in  the  two  dietaries  lies  in  the  kinds 
f of  cereal  foods  purchased.  The  teacher’s  family  had  homemade  bread 
find  cakes,  while  the  tinner’s  family  bought  bakers’  bread  and  occa- 
sionally cakes.  The  former  obtained  his  bread  at  about  half  the  cost 
(M>  the  latter,  even  when  a reasonable  allowance  is  made  for  the  cost 
>of  all  the  ingredients  in  the  bread  and  the  heat  required  to  bake  it. 
The  teacher’s  family  used  more  cereals  and  less  vegetables  and  fruits 
than  the  tinner’s  family.  In  these  ways  the  former  family  obtained 
in  their  vegetable  foods  36  grams  of  protein  and  1,485  calories  of 
energy  for  6 cents  per  man  per  day,  while  the  latter  spent  more  than 
twice  the  amount  (13  cents)  per  man  per  day  and  obtained  44  grams 
of  protein  and  2,200  calories  of  energy.  In  other  words,  the  teacher 
obtained  for  18  cents  as  much  protein  and  nearly  as  much  energy  as 
did  the  tinner  for  26  cents. 


448  YEARBOOK  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


DESIRABILITY  OF  CONSIDERING  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  IN  THE  PURCHASE 

OF  FOOD. 

The  circumstances  of  some  families  are  such  that  they  can  afford 
the  higher-priced  meats  and  the  costlier  vegetables  and  fruits,  while 
other  families  have  to  calculate  closely  in  order  to  make  both  ends 
meet.  The  man  with  an  income  of  $5,000  a year  can  pay  25  or  30 
cents  a pound  for  his  steak  and  buy  large  amounts  of  celery,  oranges, 
etc.,  but  the  man  with  an  income  of  $500  a year  can  ill  afford  such 
expenditures.  In  such  cases  it  is  frequently  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance that  the  purchases  of  food  shall  be  guided  rather  by  the  amount 
of  nutrients  they  will  furnish  than  by  their  palatability  or  bulk.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  inexpensive  foods  are  often  as  nutritious  as 
the  costly;  in  fact,  cost  is  not  regulated  by  nutritive  value.  Skill  in 
preparing  food  will  render  many  inexpensive  articles  very  appetizing 
while  the  most  expensive  articles  are  often  ruined  by  poor  cooking. 

Examples  of  the  effects  of  the  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  value  of 
different  food  materials  for  nutriment  wrere  shown  in  some  results 
obtained  in  the  study  of  dietaries  among  families  in  New  York  City. 
In  one  instance  a family  depending  more  or  less  of  the  time  upon 
charity  consumed  food  furnishing  40  per  cent  more  protein  and  16  per 
cent  more  energy  than  is  found  in  the  average  diet  of  the  mechanic 
with  an  income  of  $2  to  $3  a day.  In  another  case  the  total  income 
of  the  f amity,  consisting  of  the  father,  mother,  and  five  daughters,  the 
oldest  21  years  of  age,  was  about  $24  a week,  but  through  carelessness 
and  ignorance  they  were  insufficiently  nourished.  At  the  time  of  the 
study  they  were  obtaining  85  grams  of  protein  and  2,235  calories  of 
energy  per  man  per  day.  The  diet  was  afterwards  changed  for  the 
better,  and  a few  months  later  the  family  had  greatly  improved  in 
health. 

Nine  cents  a day  is  a very  small  allowance  for  a man  at  moderate 
wTork,  and  yet  several  instances  have  been  observed  in  connection  with 
the  dietary  studies  made  in  this  country  in  which  the  food  per  man 
per  day  has  been  purchased  for  this  sum  or  less.  A family  living^ 
in  New  York  City  may  be  cited.  The  daily  food  of  this  family  furv 
nished  but  54  grams  of  protein  and  1,500  calories  of  energy,  less  than 
half  the  protein  and  energy  found  on  an  average  in  the  diet  of  a maif* 
in  more  comfortable  circumstances.  Even  with  this  small  suni  the 
family  might  have  fared  much  better  had  the  mother  knowrn  more 
about  the  nutritive  value  of  the  different  foods.  For  instance,  they 
might  have  used  more  wheat  flour  and  less  cake.  As  a matter  of  fact, 
a mill  workman’s  family  in  Pittsburg,  for  the  same  sum,  obtained  77 
grams  of  protein  and  2,440  calories  of  energy  per  man  per  day.  In 
other  words,  they  obtained  50  per  cent  more  nutrients  for  the  same 
money  and  the  diet  seemed  equally  palatable.  Similar  cuts  of  meat 
wrere  bought  more  cheaply  and  other  cuts  wrere  selected  which  cost 
but  half  the  price  per  pound  that  was  paid  by  the  New  York  family. 


SOME  RESULTS  OF  DIETARY  STUDIES. 


449 


All  vegetable  foods  were  purchased  by  the  Pittsburg  family  at  a 
smaller  price  per  pound.  Stale  bread  was  also  purchased  for  2.5  cent  s 
per  pound  that  actually  furnished  more  nutriment,  pound  per  pound, 
than  the  fresh  bread  purchased  by  the  New  York  family  at  4 cents. 
The  results  of  a considerable  number  of  dietary  studies  made  among 
families  with  very  limited  incomes  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
indicate  that  through  ignorance  of  the  real  nutritive  and  pecuniary 
value  of  different  food  materials  either  more  is  spent  for  food  than 
can  well  be  afforded  or  the  family  is  insufficiently  nourished  on  the 
sum  expended.  Often  a considerable  sum  is  wasted  by  purchasing 
food  in  very  small  quantities. 

Many  people  have  the  impression  that  milk  is  an  expensive  food. 
In  some  instances  this  is  undoubtedly  true.  At  other  times  its  intro- 
duction into  the  diet  in  larger  amounts  than  customary  may  actually 
serve  to  lessen  the  cost  of  food.  In  a series  of  dietary  studies  made' 
at  the  Maine  State  College  the  experiment  was  tried  of  allowing  a free 
consumption  of  milk,  of  substituting  milk  for  other  foods,  and  finally 
of  reducing  the  amount  allowed  each  man.  It  was  found  that  the 
cost  of  the  diet  was  slightly  greater  when  the  milk  supply  was  limited, 
and  that  the  unlimited  use  of  milk  actually  made  the  cost  of  the  diet 
a trifle  less.  The  amount  of  other  foods  was  reduced  as  the  amount 
of  milk  was  more  liberal.  It  should  be  said  that  these  changes  were 
not  marked  enough  to  render  the  diet  unpalatable  in  any  case. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  AVOIDING  WASTE  OF  FOOD. 

In  all  that  has  been  said  thus  far  the  term  food  consumption  has 
been  used.  The  food  actually  consumed  is  usually  less  than  the  food 
purchased,  owing  to  waste  in  the  kitchen  and  on  the  table.  By  the 
term  waste  is  not  meant  the  inedible  portions  of  the  food  materials, 
such  as  bone,  tendon,  vegetable  parings,  etc.,  unless  these  are  very 
large  in  proportion,  but  those  portions  of  the  food,  which  though 
edible,  are  thrown  away.  The  actual  amount  of  such  waste  varies 
greatly  in  different  families.  In  some  cases  investigated  it  has 
amounted  to  practically  nothing,  and  in  other  cases  it  has  been  nearly 
pne-fifth  of  the  total  food  purchased.  Generally  speaking,  the  amount 
*>f  waste  has  been  found  to  be  greatest  in  those  families  who  can  best 
afford  it.  This  is  not  always  the  case,  however,  and  occasionally  an 
unusually  large  proportion  of  waste  has  been  observed  in  the  diet  of 
those  who  can  least  afford  it.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  diet  of  the 
family  in  New  York  City  previously  referred  to.  As  stated,  they  had 
only  about  one-half  the  amount  of  nutrients  found  in  the  average  diet 
of  the  man  at  moderate  work,  and  yet  nearly  6 per  cent  of  the  total 
food  purchased  was  wasted.  The  average  waste  found  in  fourteen 
mechanics’  families  in  such  circumstances  that  they  were  not  neces- 
sarily restricted  in  their  choice  and  use  of  food,  amounted  to  6 per 
cent  of  the  total  nutrients  purchased;  that  in  professional  men’s 


450  YEARBOOK  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


families  to  a little  over  3 per  cent.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that,  while 
the  professional  man  was  paying  28  cents  per  day  for  his  food  and  the 
mechanic  19  cents,  the  former  only  wasted  half  as  much  as  the  latter. 

SUMMARY  OF  AMERICAN  DIETARY  STUDIES. 

In  the  following  table  the  results  of  the  more  important  dietary 
studies  which  have  been  referred  to  in  the  preceding  pages  are  sum- 
marized : 


Comparison  of  the  average  food  consumption  of  people  of  different  occupations  or 
in  different  conditions  of  life. 

[Per  man  per  day.] 


Cost. 

Pro- 

tein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 

drates. 

Fuel 

value. 

Cents. 

Grams. 

Grams. 

Grams. 

Calories. 

I1.. 

101 

136 

483 

3,655 

97 

130 

467 

3,515 

L... 

110 

161 

425 

3,690 

2 19 

103 

150 

402 

3,465 

L_._ 

108 

132 

429 

3,435 

3 28 

% 

104 

125 

423 

3,325 

L_ 

130 

187 

519 

4,390 

107 

148 

459 

3,690 

[ . 

113 

156 

463 

3,810 

103 

138 

436 

3,500 

[ 

103 

119 

356 

2,950 

19 

101 

116 

344 

2,905 

4 

96 

98 

414 

3,005 

15 

93 

95 

407 

2,915 

81 

98 

311 

2,525 

11 

80 

95 

308 

2,485 

121 

148 

534 

4,055 

19 

120 

147 

534 

4,0454 

5 

9 

67 

134 

453 

3,375' 

5_ 

16 

103 

111 

391 

3,060 

[ 5 

22 

118 

158 

345 

3,365 

,5.. 

19 

120 

101 

406 

3,095 

5-- 

12 

115 

101 

360 

2, 885 

Families  studied. 


Average  of  ten  farmers’  families'! 
in  Vermont,  Connecticut,  andL, 

. y -T-T  , FOOd 

New  York J 

Average  of  fourteen  mechanics’  ^ 
families  in  Connecticut,  New  Jer-  fFoo(j 

sey,  Tennessee,  and  Indiana ) 

Average  of  fourteen  professional] 
men’s  families  in  Connecticut,  (Food 
Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  and  Illi- (Food 

nois  j 

Average  of  fifteen  college  clubs  in]p00(j 

Maine,  Connecticut,  Tennessee,  ?_ 
....  . Food 

and  Missouri Food 

Average  of  above  fifty-three  studies^^^ 

Average  of  twelve  laborers’  families^ Food 

in  New  York  City JFood 

Average  of  eleven  poor  families  in.  Food 

New  York  City JFood 

Average  of  two  laborers’  families,!  Food 

very  poor,  in  Pittsburg,  Pa J Food 

Average  of  two  laborers’  families,!^  ^ 
more  comfortable  circumstances,  L,  , 

m Pittsburg,  Pa J 

Average  of  twelve  negro  families  in, 

Alabama jFood 

Average  of  four  Italian  families  in. 

Chicago,  111 }Food 

Average  of  five  French  Canadian. 

families  in  Chicago,  111 |Food 

Average  of  four  families  of  Russian. 

Jews  in  Chicago,  111 |Food 

Average  of  eight  Bohemian  families, 
in  Chicago,  111 }Food 


purchased 
eaten 


eaten 


eaten 


purchased . 
eaten 
purchased 
eaten 
purchased 
eaten. 


eaten, 
purchased 
eaten. 


purchased . 
eaten. 


purchased ! 


purchased1 2 3 *  5.. 


1 Including  all  food  raised  on  the  farm. 

2 Average  in  nine  studies. 

3 Average  in  five  studies. 

* Including  some  of  the  families  in  preceding  average. 

5 Waste  not  represented. 


SOME  RESULTS  OF  DIETARY  STUDIES.  451 

WAYS  IN  WHICH  THE  RESULTS  OF  DIETARY  STUDIES  MAY  BE  USED. 

Some  of  the  more  important  and  more  noticeable  results  of  dietary 
a studies  have  been  noted  in  the  preceding  paragraphs.  How  can  these 
results,  be  applied  to  the  benefit  of  the  individual,  the  class,  or  the 
human  race  ? There  are  many  ways  in  which  this  can  be  done.  Per- 
w haps  one  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  in  instruction  concerning 
the  nutritive  value  of  the  different  food  materials  and  their  pecuniary 
economy.  People  should  be  taught  how  to  improve  their  diet  by  the 
economical  purchase  of  those  materials  best  adapted  to  their  physical 
needs.  It  will  be  found  that  by  exercising  care  in  the  purchase  and 
preparation  of  food  a palatable  and  relatively  inexpensive  diet  may 
often  be  obtained.  Much  is  already  being  done  along  this  line  in 
many  of  the  large  cities,  where  the  cost  of  many  food  materials  must 
always  be  relatively  large. 

When  the  true  character  of  the  different  kinds  of  food  materials  is 
more  thoroughly  understood  diet  will  almost  of  necessity  become 
more  rational.  With  the  advance  of  knowledge  as  to  the  physical 
requirements  of  the  body  it  will  become  possible  to  establish  stand- 
ards which  shall  indicate  the  approximate  amount  of  the  different 
nutrients  required.  By  this  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  any  defi- 
nite rules  for  the  consumption  of  food  can  be  laid  down,  but  simply 
that  it  will  be  possible  to  furnish  a reliable  guide  for  the  purchase 
and  use  of  foods. 

The  proper  nourishment  of  the  inmates  of  institutions  where  large 
numbers  must  be  fed,  such  as  schools,  reformatories,  prisons,  and 
hospitals,  is  a subject  that  is  attracting  no  little  attention  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  In  several  instances  studies  have  been  made  of  the  actual 
food  consumption  in  such  institutions,  and  at  the  present  time  an 
extended  study  of  the  food  requirements  of  the  insane  is  being  car- 
ried on  by  one  of  the  States.  In  many  instances  dietary  studies  have 
been  made  in  schools,  college  clubs,  etc.,  and  the  information  obtained 
has  been  of  much  use.  That  such  studies  have  been  found  to  have  a 
practical  value  and  that  the  interest  in  them  is  widespread  is  shown 
ly  the  fact  that  a considerable  number  have  been  undertaken  by 
instructors  and  others  interested,  aside  from  those  carried  on  by  the 
department  of  Agriculture. 

When  it  so  happens  that  large  bodies  of  men  are  to  be  fed,  as  in 
the  case  of  armies,  or  where  the  transportation  of  large  amounts  of 
food  is  difficult,  the  results  obtained  from  dietary  studies  and  similar 
investigations  are  of  the  utmost  advantage  in  the  selection  of  the 
food  ration.  It  also  becomes  possible  to  select  condensed  rations 
which  for  emergencies  shall  furnish  within  the  smallest  space  suffi- 
cient food  for  sustenance. 

These  are  some  of  the  more  important  uses  that  can  be  made  of  the 
results  of  dietary  studies  and  similar  investigations.  They  are  suffi- 
cient to  show  the  advantage  to  be  obtained  from  extended  research 


452 


YEARBOOK  OF  THE  DEPART 


in  this  direction.  At  present  only  a beginning  has  been  made,  but 
every  year  adds  to  the  data  obtained. 

In  general,  the  object  of  dietary  studies  is  not  to  limit  the  amount 
or  variety  of  food  to  be  used  by  the  people,  but  rather  to  discover 
ways  and  means  in  which  their  dietaries  may  be  improved  and  the 
available  food  supply  be  most  economically  used  to  maintain  the  body 
in  good  health  and  to  make  it  an  efficient  instrument  for  the  different 
forms  of  labor  required  by  our  complex  civilization. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  food  chemists  to  prescribe  weighed  amounts 
of  different  foods  as  a physician  prescribes  medicines,  but  rather  to 
show  the  actual  nutritive  value  of  different  food  materials  and  their 
relative  economy  as  sources  of  nutrients,  leaving  the  application  of 
the  knowledge  to  individuals.  Although  dietary  standards  are  sug- 
gested, it  is  not  necessary  that  the  food  each  day  should  contain 
exactly  the  kind  and  amounts  of  the  different  nutrients  required  by 
the  standards.  A slight  deficiency  one  day  will  be  made  good  by  an 
excess  the  next,  the  body  serving  as  a storehouse  for  reserve  mate- 
rial. Experience  has,  however,  shown  that  the  body  is  best  nourished 
when  through  long  periods  the  food  approximates  the  requirements 
of  the  so-called  standards.  Individual  requirements  and  individual 
peculiarities  will  always  affect  the  choice  of  foods.  In  the  purchase 
of  other  things  their  value  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
intended  is  considered  as  well  as  their  cost.  Without  doubt  the  same 
principle  may  be  advantageously  applied  to  the  purchase  of  food.  By 
the  exercise  of  a wise  economy,  based  on  a knowledge  of  the  real  nutri- 
tive value  of  foods,  a more  satisfactory  diet  can  be  obtained  for  a less 
sum  than  is  at  present  expended  in  many  cases,  or  the  cost  of  the 
diet  may  be  diminished  without  lessening  its  nutritive  value. 


